Adoption of Information and Communication Technology Essay

Abstract Nigerian banking industry has become highly ICT-based and is reaping the benefits of technological revolution as evidenced by its application in most of its operations. The objective of this paper was to determine if the Nigerian banks have failed or succeeded in the adoption and use of ICT (see table 2.1). An evaluation of the adoption and use of ICT infrastructures from the periods between years 2000 to 2008 indicated steady growth. It is presumed that as of today, the Nigerian banks may have attained their ICT potentials in their operations, though with some challenges. The paper concludes that the adoption of ICT has influenced the content and quality of banking operations. This paper recommends that investment in information and communication technology should form an important component in the overall strategy of banking operators to ensure effective operations. Keywords: Information, Communication, Technology, Banking & Industry. INTRODUCTION Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is the automation of processes, controls, and information production using computers, telecommunications, software and other gadget that ensure smooth and efficient running of activities. It is a term that largely covers the coupling of electronic technology for the information needs of a business at all levels. ICT has surpassed the role of support services or only electronic data processing; its fields of applications are slightly global and unlimited. Its devices especially the Internet and modern computer email facilities have further strengthened early modernizations like the telephone and fax. Other ICT devices include data recognition equipment, factory automation hardware and services, telecomputing and teleconferences using real time and online system (Adeoti, 2005). The application of information and communication technology concepts, techniques, policies and implementation strategies to banking services has become a subject of fundamental importance and concerns to all banks and indeed a prerequisite for local and global competitiveness. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) directly affects how managers decide, how they plan and what products and services are offered in the banking industry. It has continued to change the way banks and their corporate relationships are organized worldwide and the variety of innovative devices available to enhance the speed and quality of service delivery. Harold and Jeff (1995) contend that financial service providers should modify their traditional operating practices to remain viable in the 1990s and the decades that follow. They claim that the most significant shortcoming in the banking industry today is a wide spread failure on the part of senior management in banks to grasp the importance of technology and incorporate it into their strategic plans accordingly. Considering ICT to ensure banks survival, Woherem (2000) claimed that only banks that overhaul the whole of their payment and delivery systems and apply ICT to their operations are likely to survive and prosper in the new millennium. He advices banks to re-examine their service and delivery systems in order to properly position them within the framework of the dictates of the dynamism of information and communication technology. The banking industry has witnessed tremendous changes linked with the developments in ICT over the years. Nigerian banks have undergone changes in their operations since the consolidation process of 2005, when some banks were forced to merge with others to meet Central Bank of Nigeria’s (CBN) recapitalisation fund necessary for operation. Until then, most of the banks operated paper based systems at inception and later adjusted at the dawn of ICT revolution. In recent times, ICT, which basically involves the use of electronic gadgets especially computers for storing, analyzing and distributing data, is having a dramatic influence on almost all aspects of individual lives and that of the national economy – the banking sector inclusive. The increasing use of ICT has allowed for integration of different economic units in a spectacular way. This phenomenon is not only applicable to Nigeria but other economies of the world, though the level of their usage may differ. In Nigeria, ICT usage especially in the banking sector, has considerably improved, even though it may not have been as high as those observed for advanced countries (Adeoti, 2005; Adeyemi, 2006). The use of ICT in the banking sector became of interest to this study due to the significant role it plays in the economy. It helps in stimulating economic growth by directing funds to economic agents that need them for productive activities. This function is very vital for any economy that intends to experience meaningful growth because it makes arrangements that bring borrowers and lenders of financial resource together and more efficiently too than if they had to relate directly with one another (Adam, 2005; Ojo, 2007). In essence, the banking sector acts as a bridge that connects lenders and investors in the economy. The bank reforms (especially the recapitalization that specifies a minimum capital base of 25 billion naira for commercial banks), are pursued with a view to making the sector realize its objectives in advancing the economy (CBN, 2006). It is expected that the impact of these reforms will be enhanced with the use of ICT because it will create some form of competitive advantage and improve banking services through accuracy and efficiency in their transactions. In other words, it will change the nature of banks’ services in terms of quality which will culminate in greater service delivery and productivity. This is in tandem with the findings made by Adeoti (2005) that the use of information technology has the ability of improving the competitiveness of Nigerian manufacturing industries. In fact, ICT has had an impact on the Banking Industry as its emergence allows banks to apply credit-scoring techniques to consumer credits, mortgages or credit cards. Hence, products that used to be highly dependent on the banks ´ evaluation of its customers have now become more standardized. Other examples of ICT impact on the Banking Industry include the increased process efficiency, which can reduce costs in banks. This has also produced changes in the structure of bank income. As a result of increased competition that has lowered margins in lending operations (the banks’ traditional business), banks have diversified their sources of income and rely increasingly on income from fees services rather than interest rate spreads. Fees charged for services include typical banking activities like payment transactions, safe custody and account administration. Data storage and retrieval is another wonderful innovation brought into the Banking Industry, where specialized software is engaged to create database to be manipulated by Database Management Software (DBMS). A single database created could be used for several purposes within the system in order to eliminate data redundancy. From the above discourse, this paper seeks to determine whether or not the adoption of ICT enhances the operations of Nigerian banks. To achieve this, the introductory part of this paper after defining what ICT is, clearly established that to remain viable in the current age as financial concerns, banks must adopt ICT. In the succeeding sections, the paper will review relevant literature and identify the types of ICT infrastructures used in Banks; the benefits and effects of ICT on banking industry will be discussed, after which an evaluation of its success or failure will be done; then, the conclusion and recommendations will be made. LITERATURE REVIEW The Concept of ICT and a Perspective in Nigerian Banks Technology can be referred to as the application of knowledge for the execution of a given task. It entails skills and processes necessary for carrying out activities (works) in a given context, while ICT encompasses computer systems, telecommunication, networks, and multimedia applications (Frenzel, 1996). It came into use in the late 1980’s replacing earlier terms like Electronic Data Processing (EDP), Management Information System (MIS), although the latter terms are still in use (Frenzel, 1996). ICT has transcended the role of support services or only electronic data processing; its fields of applications are somewhat global and unlimited. Its devices especially the Internet through the World Wide Web (www) and modern computer email facilities have further strengthened early innovations like the telephone and fax. Other ICT devices include data recognition equipment, factory automation hardware and services, tele-computing and teleconferences using real time and online system (Adeoti, 2005). It is a concept that is having a remarkable effect on almost entire aspects of the human endeavours. This connotes that it involves the application of principles to engage physical component in achieving an intended goal. The convergence of computer and telecommunication after about four decades of applying computers to routine data processing, mainly in information storage and retrieval, has created a new development where information has become the engine of growth around the world. This development has created catch-up opportunities for developing countries such as Nigeria to attain desired levels of development without necessarily ‘reinventing the wheels’ of economic growth. This new technology has brought far-reaching revolution in societies, which has tremendously transformed most business (banking) scenes (Ovia, 2005). With respects to the banks in Nigeria, the first established bank was in 1892 (then African Banking Corporation). However, there was no banking legislation until 1952 when three foreign banks (Bank of British West Africa, Barclays Bank, and British and French Bank) and two indigenous banks (National Bank of Nigeria and African Continental Bank) were established, with a total number of 40 branches (Iganiga, 1998). As at 1988, the Nigerian banking system consisted of the CBN, 42 commercial banks and 24 merchant banks (Iganiga, 1998; Adam, 2005). From 1970, the banking sector grew significantly in terms of number and coverage as a result of increase in economic activities. However, between 1970 and 1985, the growth of the sector was relatively slow due to predominant government regulations but the period 1986-2000 witnessed a phenomenal growth of the sector as a result of the financial deregulation policy, that is the Structural Adjustment Program-SAP of 1986 (Iganiga, 1998). This brought about the liberalization of bank licence leading to a rapid change in the sector. Some of the banks were characterized by paper oriented methods, rather than technological based systems and this resulted to slow pace of their operations vis-à  -vis their employees’ productivity cum general performance. The use of computers and other ICT gadgets in their operations were limited. This was one of the reasons adduced by Ojo (2007) as factors responsible for the Nigerian financial sector malaise. To mitigate the shocks experienced in the system, the Federal Government of Nigeria came up with the financial sector reforms through the CBN. The policy thrust on bank reforms encompasses the sum of the variations that occur in the direction of a comprehensive banking system. The bank reforms agenda, among others, specified a minimum capital base of 25 billion naira for the commercial banks that took effect in December, 2005 (Diamond Bank, 2005; CBN, 2006). This has reduced the number of commercial banks in Nigeria from 89 to 25, which was done via the processes of mergers, acquisition and the stock market (CBN, 2006; Ige, 2007). The major aim was to make Nigerian banks vibrant and resilient, clothed with efficiency and financial strength to absorb possible shocks, thereby instilling public confidence as well as global relevance (Soludo, 2004). ICT and Nigerian Banking Sector The revolution in ICT has made the banking sector changed from the traditional mode of operations to presumably better ways with technological innovation that improves efficiency. ICT can enhance efficiency via its use and in recent times banks have been encouraged by the rapid decline in the price of ICT gadgets. This has perhaps increased the bank level of ICT usage (Ovia, 2005).The increase might have also be attributable to business environment that became relatively flexible to accommodate new forms of technological change as a result of reforms in the country. Banking is becoming highly ICT-based and because of its inter-sectoral link, it appears to be reaping most of the benefits of revolution in technology, as can be seen by its application to almost all areas of its activities (Akinuli, 1999). It has broadened the scope of banking practices and changed the nature of banking as well as the competitive environment in which they operate. A broad opening has been experienced around the world for banks and they are currently taking due advantage of these innovations to provide improved customer services in the face of competition and faster services that enhance productivity (Akinuli, 1999; Ovia,2005). Technological advancement facilitates payments and creates convenient alternatives to cash and cheque for making transactions. Such new practices have led to the development of a truly global, seamless and Internet enabled 24-hour business of banking. ICT revolution both in terms of innovation rate, speedy operation, and cost per unit (portraying reduction in average total and marginal costs) has made a good number of banks embrace the use of ICT infrastructure in their operations (Akinuli, 1999). The technological innovation that is being witnessed currently in the Nigerian banking sector is possible of impacting on the banks’ mode of transactions especially in their payment systems. The payment systems are made feasible by ICT gadgets such as Automated Teller Machine (ATM), Electronic Fund Transfer (EFT), Clearing House Automated Payments (CHAPs), Electronic Purse (E-PURSE), Automated Cheque Sorter (ACS) and Electronic and Transfer at Point of Sale (EFTPOS), which have made transactions easy and convenient. This phenomenon is capable of bringing about speedy operations and enhanced productivity (Adeoti, 2005; Ovia, 2005). Though there may be little interruptions at times due to network failures, which may make customers unable to carry out transactions at that point in time. This little shortcoming is not in any way comparable to the days when banking halls were characterized by long queues mainly as a result of delays in the traditional banking operations. Now banks can provide comprehensive services to their customers by making them access their accounts via online services. These instruments have an edge over the traditional payment instruments because it is safer, more efficient, convenient and cost effective. Before the introduction of these ICT services in the banking industry, manual processing of documents were in use. The bankers were made to cope with this onerous task, and the process made business transactions minimal. Besides several hectic procedures, people had to contend with, banks’ customers were inevitably made to spend several hours in the congested banking halls in carrying out their transactions (Ovia, 2005). The present situation The ICT culture in Nigerian economy can be said to be on the increase. Nigeria is the largest Internet subscriber in Africa with about 100,000 Internet users as at 2000, which was estimated to have grossly increased (Balancing Act, 2007). It has also been observed that Nigeria’s telecommunication density had remarkably increased by more than 2,550% from 0.35% in 1992 to 9.3% in 2004, thereby greatly exceeding the International Telephone Union’s (ITU) benchmark of 1% (Ndukwe, 2005). This phenomenon has helped banks keep substantial information on-line which reduces the cost of marketing their products. Being a competitive tool, it enhances the creation of customized services, reduces the cost of operation, and improves productivity as well as profitability. More interestingly, almost all the banks in Nigeria have internet and on-line real time banking facilities which has improved the scope of Nigerian banking. It has aided transfer of funds from one location to another without any involvement of facial transactions thereby reducing the incidence of loss of funds to stealing and the likes. Another recent one is the telephone banking technology that allows customers to have transactions on their accounts by calling a particular telephone number, through voice activation, and using a tone pad. All of these improve the comfort of banking transactions. THE TYPES OF ICT SUBSTRUCTURES USED IN BANKS Ovia (2005) opined that ICT adoption will improves three critical domains which are efficiency, quality, and transparency in any organisation. Agboola (2001) discussed the dimensions in which automation in the banking industry manifest in Nigeria. They include: Bankers Automated Clearing Services: Automated Payment Systems, Automated Delivery Channels. In the analysis done by Alawode and Kaka (2008) on ICT infrastructures used in Nigerian banks between the periods of 2000 to 2008, found a proportionate increase in adoption and use. The specific ICT infrastructural use within year 2000 to year 2008 include Internet Access; Internal Network; SMS Alert; Substitution of Postal Mail; ICT Security Measures; Authentication and Automated Payment System. The tabular presentation of the ICT structures and the analysis are presented below. This analysis and other recent literature will form the basis for evaluation of ICT adoption success or otherwise, and informs its inclusion in this seminar paper. TABLE 2.1:SURVEY DATA OF SOME SELECTED BANKS IN NIGERIA AND THEIR UPTAKE IN SOME ICT INFRASTRUCTURES Serialnumbers| ICT infrastructures| Percentage of Nigeria Banks that use a particular ICT infrastructure within year2000 to year 2008.| | | 2000 – 2002| 2003 – 2005| 2006 – 2008| 1| Internet Access | 27%| 88%| 91%| 2| Internal Network| Wire based| 68%| 82%| 92%| | | Wireless| 08%| 19%| 28%| 3| SMS Alert| NIL| 22%| 98%| 4| Substitution of Postal mail | 18%| 38%| 88%| 5| ICT Security measures| 62%| 81%| 94%| 6| Authentication| 33%| 76%| 85%| 7| Automated PaymentSystem| 1%| 28%| 87%| Source: Alawode and Kaka (2008) Internet Access: An important indicator of the general uptake of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in the Banking Industry relates to the use and availability of Internet. Internet access is a precondition for e-Business, as this is the main channel for e-banking. The general availability of Internet allows for the analysis of overall ICT-readiness in the Banking Industry. The Table shows that 91% of Banks studied in Nigeria have access to the internet within year 2006 and 2008, While 27% and 88% from year 2000 to 2002 and from year 2003 to 2005 respectively. The drastic change that occurred from 27% to 88% from year 2000 to 2002 and from year 2003 to 2005 respectively was as the result of ICT awareness competitive products introduced by some the so called â€Å"new generation banks†. Virtually all other banks also braced up to satisfy their customers and there was general improvement in the services and products of Banking Industry. Use of Internal Network: The application of networks is a vital part of an effective ICT-enabled system, which is especially true in the case of banks with a branch network. Local Area Network (LAN) may also be seen as a basic indicator of the minimum infrastructure required to enable companies to conduct e-banking at a substantial level. Wire-based LAN is currently the dominating technology. The survey shows that 92% banks surveyed use wire-based LAN from year 2006 to 2008. The fact that LAN is a relatively low-tech and easily attainable ICT solution, would to some extent explain the wide coverage of this technology from year 2000 to 2008. Wireless LAN is a relatively new technology in the Banking Industry, and is used to permit bank employees to access network resources from nearly any convenient location. The fact that, wireless LAN is relatively new technology accounts for its low percentage uptake in Banking Industry. Use of SMS alert: Instant notification of transactions made was another innovation brought by ICT through the use of smart phone in conjunction with the internet facility in the Banking Industry. Virtually all banks studied in Nigeria use SMS-Alert, except some of the Micro-finance Banks. It was an ICT infrastructure that recorded no patronage between year 2000 and 2002. Substitution of postal mail: The Banking Industry is currently being renewed in many areas. One of these areas relate to the digitalization of formerly paper-based processes. Electronic mail is increasingly being applied for especially non-legal correspondence like account statements, marketing and sales. More than 80% banks surveyed have substituted electronic mail with old postal mail within year 2006 to 2008. This outcome shows that, efficiency gains from electronic mail are yet to be reaped and indicates that the Industry is a bit fragmented in its uptake of electronic mail as means of communication. ICT security measures: The security issue is of special concern in the Banking Industry, as banking is highly based on trust from its customers. Hence, the risk of hackers, denial of service attacks, technological failures, breach of privacy of customer information, and opportunities for fraud created by the anonymity of the parties to electronic transactions all have to be managed. Depending upon its nature and scope, a breach in security can seriously damage public confidence in the stability of a financial institution or of a nation’s entire banking system. Hence, by introducing the appropriate security measures and putting security concerns at ease, the BI might be able to attract the segments among consumers who previously were not inclined to use e-banking. Furthermore, it is also in the banks’ own interest to improve security, as digital fraud can be costly both in financial losses, and in terms of the damage it does to the brand of the bank in question. Authentication: The common concern among users of e-banking is related to the authentication of users and data connections. The use of digital signatures is not as common as PIN codes or encryption, and reason is the fact that digital signature is relatively new technology. The research even shows that none of the studied banks uses digital signature as the form of authentication, but the up-take in other types of authentication is generally high, up to 85% within the year 2006 and year 2008. Automated Payment System: Devices used in Automated Payment Systems include Automatic Teller Machine (ATM) and Electronic Funds Transfer. ATM still ranked higher in its spread than Electronic Funds Transfer, Low rate of spread of this technology might be due to cost, fear of fraudulent practices and lack of facilities necessary for their operation. But generally speaking, the adoption of Automated Payment System increased dramatically. The table shows the increase from 28% to 87% within the range of 3-years. BENEFITS OF ICT ADOPTION ON BANKING INDUSTRY Many researchers have agreed on some benefits that accrue to ICT adoption and use in the banking industry. These include among others: Enhanced operational efficiency. The use of ICT in the banking industry enhances the operational efficiency of the banks (Madueme, 2009). For example, the use of SMS alert, an ICT infrastructure that recorded no patronage among Nigerian banks between year 2000 and 2002, has presently aided instant notification of transactions. Improved quality of service delivery. Many researchers (Ikechukwu, 2000; Madueme, 2009; Fenuga & Oladejo, 2010) confirm that the application of ICT to banking operations has undoubtedly enhances the quality of customer service delivery in the banks. The uses of ICT-based payment systems such as Automatic Teller Machine (ATM) and Electronic Funds Transfer have actually improved the service delivery of Nigerian banks to its customers. For example, a money transfer transaction that used to take me days to transact has been reduced to a matter of few minutes. For a case in point, last week, I sent money to my brother through UBA bank and before I got to the gate after the transaction, I got a call from him confirming that his account was credited through a message alert. Increase in customer satisfaction. This benefit derives from the one above. According to Fenuga and Oladejo (2010), the adoption and use of ICT in the banking industry has increased customers’ satisfaction due to improved quality of banking services. Referring to the above case of personal experience, it is unequivocal that customer satisfaction has markedly increased as a result of adoption and application of ICT in Nigerian banks. Improved profit performance. Another important benefit of the adoption and use of ICT in the banking industry has to do with improved profit margin. Many studies (Baba & Harker, 1997; Ikechukwu. 2000; Madueme, 2009; and Oladejo & Adereti, 2010) have shown significant and positive correlation between ICT adoption and profitability of organisations. Increase in market shares. When ICT is successfully adopted and applied to banking operations, the overall performance of the banks is improved and this manifest in the corresponding increase in market shares, profitability and other indicators of performance (Oladejo & Adereti, 2010). Enhanced competitive advantage. Researches by Ikechukwu (2000) and Oladejo and Adereti, 2010 have lent credence to the fact that application of ICT to the operations of the banks has boosted their operational efficiency and brought about greater competitive advantage in the industry. EFFECTS OF ICT ON BANKING INDUSTRY Agboola (2001) studied the impact of computer automation on the banking services in Lagos and discovered that Electronic Banking has tremendously improved the services of some banks to their customers in Lagos. The study was however restricted to the commercial nerve centre of Nigeria and concentrated on only six banks. He made a comparative analysis between the old and new generation banks and discovered variation in the rate of adoption of the automated devices. Aragba-Akpore (1998) wrote on the application of information technology in Nigerian banks and pointed out that ICT is becoming the backbone of banks’ services regeneration in Nigeria. He cited the Diamond Integrated Banking Services (DIBS) of Diamond Bank Limited and Electronic Smart Card Account (ESCA) of All States Bank Limited as efforts geared towards creating sophistication in the banking sector. Ovia (2000) discovered that banking in Nigeria has increasingly depended on the deployment of Information Communication Technology and that the ICT budget for banking is by far larger than that of any other industry in Nigeria. He contended that On-line system has facilitated Internet banking in Nigeria as evidenced in some of them launching websites. He found also that banks now offer customers the flexibility of operating an account in any branch irrespective of which branch the account is domiciled. Cashless transactions were made possible in our society of today. The mover of the economy (Banking Industry) is now well positioned to meet-up with the new challenges from the costumers, competitors and even from the nation’s economy with right tool in their hand to reach limitless point of success. The Industry is now growing on daily basis with respect to new innovations that are coming out in the world of technology. Evaluation The banking business in Nigeria today can be assessed as being highly ICT based. The analysis of Alawode and Kaka (2008) ICT infrastructures used in some selected banks between year 2000 to year 2008 as earlier presented in table 2.1 clearly indicate the steady growth of ICT application in Nigerian Banks. Internet access usage, for example, rose from 27% between years 2000-2002 to 91% between years 2006-2008. SMS Alert that was nonexistent between the periods of 2000-2002 rose from nowhere to 98% between years 2006-2008. Similarly, Automated Payment System that was barely 1% between years 2000-2002 rose dramatically to 28% in years 2003-2005 and sky rocketed to 87% between years 2006-2008. The research, which provided the above analysis, is over 5 years old now. Considering the rate of growth reported in the analysis, it is obvious that most of the infrastructures may have reached their full potential. Drawing from above background, one could reasonably accept Akinuli’s (1999) viewpoint when he observed then that it appears Nigerian banks were reaping most of the benefits of revolution in technology, as can be seen by its application to almost all areas of its activities. Adeoti (2005), Ovia (2005) and Osabuohein (2008) in separate remarks affirmed the fact that the technological innovation witnessed in Nigerian banking sector is possible of impacting on the bank’s mode of operations especially in their payment systems. It is indeed unequivocal to state that ICT adoption in Nigerian banks has broadened the scope of banking practices and changed the nature of banking as well as the competitive environment in which they operate. Such new practices have led to the development of a truly global, seamless and Internet enabled 24-hour business of banking. In summary, the adoption of ICT in Nigerian banks can be said to be a success though not without some challenges. Challenges The automation of banking operations is really posing challenges to the Consumers, the banks themselves and Regulatory/Supervisory authorities in Nigeria. Among the issues concerned are: Infrastructural deficiencies: It is obvious that the use of ICT in the banking industry require minimum level or basic infrastructure such as electricity, telecommunication and motorable roads. Yet all these remain great challenges even as they feature as manifestos in all political campaigns. Ineffectiveness of telecommunication service providers and epileptic supply of electricity have often times cost people to spend days suffering to recover trapped cards in ATMs. For example, there was a day my friend’s card got trapped for only God knows the reason, but on a Saturday when the banks staff could not be accessed to recover neither the card nor alternatively withdraws money at UBA Aliade road branch. He had to wait until Monday morning to recover his card. Whatever his purpose for wanting to access money must have been defeated. Consumer Awareness and capacity: A major challenge of ICT banking to many illiterate and semi-literate population of the country who reside in rural areas is lack of awareness of how the systems work and their inability to access the services which mostly exist in cities and high populated work areas or institutions. Access to ATM and GSM Telephones: There are inadequate banking facilities to cover for the growing population of Nigerians who can access the services. Many households are unable to afford terminals and all accessories required for operating in today’s banking system. The recent Federal government’s 60 billion naira telephone project for 10 million farmers (Olatunji, 2013) is one exemplification that majority of Nigerians are too poor to afford a telephone, a necessary accessory for accessing ICT banking services. Consumer Protection: Another major challenge of adoption of ICT is the absence of statutory or regulatory provisions to protect the consumer of the products/services. Fraud: So much fraud has been reported within and outside banks due to ICT adoption. The high exposure of the system to fraudsters, hackers and other criminally minded persons who could access, retrieve and utilize confidential information from the system if security measures are weak; to checkmate unauthorized intrusion is another challenge to the authorities. Systems Operational Risks: Bank IT rests on computers and telecommunications which could be susceptible to system failure, internal manipulations and inconsistent regulatory policies (Etim, 2000). Conclusion Concerns about ICT role in attaining effectiveness, efficiency and productivity were raised in the late 1980s. Since then a large number of studies have emerged both at the industry and firm level that have substantially improved our understanding of the relationship between ICT and firm performance. This paper has clearly defined what ICT is and presented a review of relevant literature to aid understanding of the historical antecedents or reforms that necessitated its adoption in Nigerian banks by assessing the benefits and effects, and the journey so far. The paper further evaluated the success of ICT adoption as well as addresses the challenges it has posed to banks, consumers of services and supervising authorities. The paper concludes that the adoption of ICT has influenced the content and quality of banking operations positively. From all indications, ICT presents great potential for business process reengineering of Nigerian Banks. It is imperative for bank management to intensify investment in ICT products to facilitate speed, convenience, and accurate services, or otherwise lose out to their competitors. Recommendation This paper recommends that investment in information and communication technology should form an important component in the overall strategy of banking operators to ensure effective performance. References Adam, J.A. (2005). Banking Sector Reforms: The Policy Challenges of Banks Consolidation in Nigeria. Selected Papers for 46th Annual Conference, Nigerian Economic Society, August 23-25. Adeoti, J.O (2005). Information Technology Investment in Nigerian Manufacturing Industry: The Progress So Far. Selected Papers for the 2004 Annual Conference, Ibadan: Nigerian Economic Society, 213-244. Adeyemi, K.S (2006). Banking Sector Consolidation in Nigeria: Issues and Challenges. Union Digest, 9(3&4) June (http://www.unionbankng.com/adeyemi.pdf). Agboola, A. A. (2006). 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(2008). ICT and Nigerian Banks Reforms: Analysis of Anticipated Impacts in Selected Banks. Global Journal of Business Research, 2(2), 67-76. Ovia, J. (2000). From Banking Hall to E-Platform. Financial Standard, January 15. P. 6. Ovia, J. (2005), Enhancing the Efficiency of the Payment System in Nigeria. CBN Bullion, 29(1), 8-18. Soludo, C.C. (2004). Consolidating the Nigerian Banking Industry to Meet the Development Challenges of the 21st Century. An Address Delivered to the Special Meeting of the Bankers’ Committee, Abuja, July 6. Woherem, E. W. (2000). Information Technology in the Nigerian Banking Industry. Ibadan: Spectrum.

Chemistry lab on saturated and unsaturated fats Essay

This experiment has also been trialled using KMnO4(aq) (0.0005 mol dm ) as the indicator. This turns from purple to colourless while unsaturation is still present. The procedure is the same as for bromine water, but portions of the potassium permanganate are added with swirling until the mixture fails to produce a colourless solution. The mixture requires more and more swirling as the amount of potassium permanganate increases. Warming fats in the Volasil using a beaker of hot water helps the fat dissolve and also speeds up the reaction. see more:chemistry matriculation This experiment should be done in a fume-cupboard with ready filled burettes. Background theory Saturation and unsaturation. Classic chemistry experiments 21 Safety Wear eye protection. Answers 1. Depends on what is supplied. 2. Weighing the fats and oils and calculating the exact amount of bromine water used per mole. 3. Unsaturated compounds contain double covalent bonds. Classic chemistry experiments Unsaturation in fats and oils Introduction Advertisements often refer to unsaturated fats and oils. This experiment gives a comparison of unsaturation in various oils. Burette  containing  bromine water Conical flask Oil and Volasil White tile What to record Volume of bromine water required for each oil. What to do 1. Using a teat pipette, add five drops of olive oil to 5 cm of Volasil in a conical flask. –3 2. Use a burette filled with a dilute solution of bromine water (0.02 mol dm ) (Harmful and irritant). Read the burette. 3. Run the bromine water slowly into the oil solution. Shake vigorously after each addition. The yellow colour of bromine disappears as bromine reacts with the oil. Continue adding bromine water to produce a permanent yellow colour. 4. Read the burette. Subtract to find the volume of bromine water needed in the titration. 5. Repeat the experiment with: five drops of cooking oil (vegetable) and five drops of cooking oil (animal). Safety Wear eye protection. Questions 1. Which sample is the most saturated and which is the most unsaturated? 2. This comparison is only approximate. How could the method be improved? 3. What does unsaturated mean?

Critical Review. for Culinary Course Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Critical Review. for Culinary Course - Essay Example The sustainability of this tourism depends on the locality of culinary foods farmers. Major scenarios crises of this tourism include the contamination of foods, fear of unhealthy competition and natural disaster strikes. The aftermath of these is a detrimental damage to culinary tourism industry profits as well as tainting its name. The greatest odd time to make decisions on crisis management is during the calamity itself and all the stakeholders should be well equipped to handle the situation critically in order to reduce or prevent loss. Culinary tourism is becoming widely known and is offered in many places. Therefore, food is not only linked to it original region but it has become a marketing tool. For example, by exploring Ontario as a potential candidate in this lucrative business of culinary tourism in reference to global market place, the emerging issue is whether it can be sustained or not (Hall, 2013). Sustainability in this point of view is the ability of this tourism indu stry to protect its products, conservation of resources and give respect to the people traditions aiming for quality experience instead of monetary achievement. Market for culinary tourism recognition has led to a paramount significance in the economy of Ontario in 2001 ever since from its tourism ministry (Hall, 2013). The greatest factor to consider while establishing culinary tourism sustainability in Ontario is the part played by farmers in land treatment methods, where food is produced and sustainability regard to them to ensure the availability of sufficient food for various eating places. The consequences of poor farming habits is the land deterioration leading to poor yields as there is no attention given to the productivity of the soil. One is in a position to come across such poor farming habits in countries where education levels of farmer’s leaves a lot to be desired as they are not in a position to maintain the proportionality of soil productivity and high crop y ields (Hall, 2013). In the Southeast Asian country of Laos, the increased population led to land fragmentation to residential area leaving little for farming with the little left being over exploited. This in return led to food shortages which negatively affect culinary tourism in Ontario. The example given leads to a conclusion that the implementation of well researched systems should be put in place for the sustainability of agriculture to avoid such occurrence in Ontario (Hall, 2013). With culinary tourism trying to grow to the highest heights of attraction in Ontario, there is a call for sustainable farming methods which are more effective than our current farming methods in which only 38% of world land is utilized in farming alongside 70% of world’s water. These statistical data are according to United Nation Environmental Programme (UNEP). In the province investors who wish to be identified in as far a culinary tourist sites are concerned should develop a relationship w ith farmers who have adequate knowledge of sustainable farming habits (Hall, 2013). There are various organizations like the Ecological Farmers Association of Ontario which is in the forefront in the dissemination of knowledge and educational tools to farmers to give great care to their farmland. Also, Ontario Soil and Crop Improvement Association, degrees and diplomas in agriculture sustainability found in schools such as Tent and Guelp University. By making use of these resources,

How Age,Gender and Self-Perception Affect Self-Handicapping Essay

How Age,Gender and Self-Perception Affect Self-Handicapping - Essay Example The matter has caused so much attention from psychologists because of its perceived importance in helping create better responses from students and employees alike. Therefore, there have been much studies conducted to further understand the implications of self-handicapping in schools. In addition, more studies are being employed to consider more variables such as culture, setting and other factors. As more researches have been conducted, proven and accepted regarding the matter on the factors such as age, gender and self-perception, this paper will deal particularly on the aforementioned three components affecting self-handicaps in addition to the definition of the term. This paper will show how age affects self-handicapping. In addition, it will also show that women have been found to be more resilient and therefore able to escape self-handicapping more than men. Lastly, the paper will also look deeper into how self-perception affects the tendency of self-handicapping. First and fo remost, it is the aim of this paper to expound on what self-handicap is all about. According to McCrea and Flamm (2011), self-handicapping is â€Å"an anticipatory self-protective strategy in which individuals create or claim obstacles to success prior to an important performance to excuse potential failure†. ... Understandably, individuals tend to take pride in themselves regardless of their abilities and capabilities so that they would want to be appreciated most of the time especially when they perform well. Nevertheless, failure is inevitable even to the best of the best. However, there is such a circumstance that most people resort to in order to escape the embarrassment of failure and it is called self-handicapping. Leondari and Gonida (2007) summarize the definition of term saying, â€Å"it involves creating obstacles to successful performance on tasks that the individual considers important†. Such obstacles are influenced by factors such as age, gender and self-perception. Just like in many circumstances, age makes a difference in how people react. In the case of self-handicapping, it has been found out that younger children are less inclined to self-handicap compared to older children. According to a study performed on a population of 702 students in Greece, there is no signif icant difference in self-handicapping among the elementary and high school students involved in the experiment. Initially, the researchers assumed that high school students will use self-handicapping strategies more than elementary students because the â€Å"high school environment is more competitive and places more emphasis on performance demands† (Leondari & Gonida, 2007). Nevertheless, their study proved the supposition wrong. What the researchers have found though was that, task goals significantly affected the result of self-handicapping strategies. This means that task goals are more of a motivation to one’s accomplishment in relation to age rather than age alone as a factor influencing self-handicapping. From the

Cycles of Failure, Mediocrity and Success and the Role of Staff Essay

Cycles of Failure, Mediocrity and Success and the Role of Staff Empowerment on Breaking the Cycle - Essay Example The paper tells that the role of employee motivation in generating customer satisfaction has been traditionally studied in the context of employees within the service sector. This is because from the company’s perspective frontline interactions with customers are a significant way of attaining competitive advantage and differentiating oneself. Hence, employees dealing in frontline work are expected to anticipate the needs of customers, deliver the service based on customized needs and build long term, personalized relationships with the customers. Thus, staff empowerment is a crucial aspect of maintaining employee motivation and customer loyalty. From the above it follows that poor working environment can translate into poor customer service with employees dealing with their customers the way their managers treat them. Furthermore, employee turnover is attributed to what is known as the â€Å"cycle of failure†. In other cases, some degree of job security is present but there is little room for practicing one’s own initiatives. This situation arises from the lack of empowerment and is termed as the â€Å"cycle of mediocrity†. However, by employing the right tools of empowerment, the management of any company can develop a positive attitude in service employees which is known as â€Å"cycle of success†. The â€Å"cycle of failure† is attributed to the delegation of monotonous, mundane tasks to cheaply hired and untrained employees by employing the division of labor philosophy. This cycle is split into two cycles that work simultaneously. The first one involves failure with workers and the second one involves failure with customers. The cycle of failure pertaining to employees involves working on tasks requiring little or no skills and little scope for personal control. The output is strictly controlled by technology and emphasis is on following the rules as opposed to focusing on the quality of customer service. It is a c ommonplace to hear management attributing this failure to shortage of skilled labor, dearth of motivated employees in the labor market and the fact that high costs of skilled labor would have to be borne by customers in the form of high prices (Lovelock, Wirtz, & Chatterjee, 2007). Mostly companies consider training as a cost (and not an investment) and fear that it will result in wastage of funds if the employee walks away after acquiring the training (Lovelock, Wirtz, & Chatterjee, 2007). Failure with customers is associated with the lack of a consistent and clear image of the company to the customers which occurs because of changing faces due to high employee turnover. Also companies focus too much on the attraction of new customers as opposed to the retention of

The Architecture of Race and Identity in the United States Essay

The Architecture of Race and Identity in the United States - Essay Example The American dream is an impressive ideology that has lured people to America and moved them around within it. It is that idea that has encouraged millions of immigrants to strive in horrible conditions against impossible odds for centuries. Most Americans celebrate it unthinkingly, along with apple pie and motherhood; criticism is usually limited to imperfections in its application. But like apple pie and motherhood, the American dream turns out to be less than perfect upon closer examination. President Clinton has captured the bundle of shared tenets about achieving success that make up the ideology of the American dream. Those tenets answer the questions: Who may pursue the American dream In what does the pursuit consist How does one successfully pursue the dream Why is the pursuit worthy of our deepest commitment Although describing each tenet in detail is beyond the scope of this essay, we have to look at the flaws intrinsic to this dream, to gain better understanding of its val idity and applicability in contemporary America. The first persuasion, which is that everyone can participate equally and can always start over, is troubling, as throughout most part of the American history, women of any race and men who were Native American, Asian, black, or just poor, were barred from all but a narrow range of elective positions. White men, especially European immigrants, able to ride the wave of the Industrial Revolution to comfort or prosperity, have always been the most valued members of the American society. Those who do not fit to that description, disappear from the collective self-portrait. The situation is that not only has the ideal of universal participation been denied to most Americans, but also the very fact of its denial is been denied in our national self-image. This state of things determines deep misunderstandings and correspondingly deep political tensions. In this essay, we will focus primarily on the first tenet. There is a huge population of Asian and Jewish immigrants who have carved a niche for themselves although there are a million others who have not succeeded. Media is laced with numerous success stories, but no one writes about those, who haven't used their golden chance, who live on welfare or charity. It would be tenable to imply that there are some qualities a person has to possess in order to become successful in the USA. Tocqueville's "Democracy in America" is reffered to as a classical work in sociology and political science. For modern Americans his observations that the president with, his almost royal prerogatives, will have a great need of virtue, are almost prophetic. Nowadays we see what is going on in Iraq, we observe the disenfranchising of voters in the USA, and, of course, we remember the "Patriot Act", which in effect repeals the Fourth Amendment. Thus we can conclude that Tocqueville was rightfully worried about the unlimited power of the majority, and its consequences. Many of his observations are as timeless and applicable as they were in his day. He stated : "Americans of all ages, all stations of life, and all types of disposition are forever forming associations...In democratic countries knowledge of how to combine is the mother of all other forms of knowledge; on its progress depends that of all the

What is the Bottom of the Pyramid approach, and why is it consider Essay

What is the Bottom of the Pyramid approach, and why is it consider controversial - Essay Example In this regard, the poor are seen to be resilient and enterprising in terms of managing their budgets with the meagre income they earn. In essence, the BOP concept has gained prominence out of the consideration of the over 4billion poor around the world who are ignored by multinational corporations, for instance. Consequently, BOP views this group to be significant in terms of influencing trade and growth. The proponents of BOP further suggests that market development targeting the BOP group leads to the development of new entrepreneurs, particularly, at the grass root level. While BOP approach appears controversial, it has opened up opportunities for multinationals to exploit and serve the BOP consumers effectively. For example, the establishment of micro-finance organisations in Kenya, for instance, has helped entrepreneurs in the informal sector to grow their businesses from small to medium sized businesses. While BOP approach has opened up market opportunities, it is considered that targeting the poor can result in wasteful spending of the already meagre income they earn. On the other hand, BOP considers spending by the estimated 4billion poor should be left free to decide how to use their earnings since they are value-conscious consumers. As such, they are the only ones who can determine how to maximise their utility. However, a free market ideology such as the poor’s right to maximise their utility tends to harm the disadvantaged in the society. This is because while the poor also can make choices just like the advantaged in the society, some of the decisions are not thought out properly. This approach is also controversial in the sense that, the poor are affected by numerous social issues and cannot be compared with the upper or middle-class population in terms of making informed choices. This is because a larger percentage of the disadvantaged in the society appears vulnerab le due to lack of proper education. They are also

The Signature Murders Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Signature Murders - Coursework Example At the moment Garcia’s sister-in-law visited the apartment with her son, found what had happened and called the police. In the second murder case, 65 years old, Willie Nichols was found dead in his apartment following the insistence of his friend Deborah, who pleaded with the apartment manager to open Nichols apartment after he had failed to pick her calls a number of times. Based on the evidence collected in two crime scene, there was a possible connection that they had been committed by the same individual, who was later identified as Robert Rose (Ramsland, 2012). The investigators applied professional techniques in the case; firstly they were divided based on the divisions to ensure that the evidence collected on the scene was handled appropriately. Detective Thacker and Small from the Hollywood Homicide Detective evaluated the scene and determined that it was a burglary. The Scientific Investigative Division (SID) collected the evidence, which was given to the criminalistic team for analysis (Ramsland, 2012). To secondary scenes existed and the handling of the crime scene was relevant to the closing of the case. Forensic technologies were utilized at a wide array of the signature murders. The collected fingerprints were examined using the fingerprint classification (FPC) and the information was transmitted to the AFIS computer for evaluation and comparisons. Electrostatic detection apparatus was used to dust the particles from the offender’s footprints (Ramsland, 2012). The blood collected as evidence, which belonged to both the victim and the offender was also tested. The DNA test was done through Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and it distinguished the victims’ blood sample from that of the offender (Krimsky & Simoncelli, 2013). The rich evidence that was in the two murder cases enabled the investigators and the forensics to be conducted easily and it was admissible to the court.

American Popular Culture Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

American Popular Culture - Assignment Example Like in case of Star Trek (Put Locker 0:10), this fictional film gives visual as well as audio information about the story. The advent of movies and television has enabled knowing what is happening around us and in the whole world. The use of visual images in movies and television provides additional information not readily available through reading or listening to radio. Television and movies also brought new ways to understand surrounding environment and society (Kellner 1). Visual images from movies or television are good learning tools to some scholars Reading culture in America has reduced to some extent due to influence of television ad movies. Acquiring similar information such as those in novels is now possible through watching an entertaining movie. In the movies, stars usually portray a culture that we unconsciously follow and start practicing (Media Literacy Project 2). In music videos, a dance style by a musician such as Michael Jackson’s break dance has influenced the current dancing styles. Considering for example Jackson’s music video of Moonwalk (Slake 2:00) has been copied unconsciously by most individuals not only in US but also in other parts of the world. Listening to radio provided information about news or music but left room for imagination of how the environment and events taking place. Using visual images on television news provide the information of the scene and make one unconsciously think that they are in the same scene. This has in turn reduces the number of people listening to radio to get informed. After watching, the conversation also differs compared to those who previously listened due to involvement of visual information about the scene and characters involved. Dressing cord and hairstyles has changed over time depending on influence of the images on television and characters that movie

Water gate scandal and Frost Nixon Research Paper

Water gate scandal and Frost Nixon - Research Paper Example The Newspapers response: The notable newspapers took this story by its horns and both the editorials, cartoonists, columnists and every person who could contribute contributed in their own way to discuss this topic in every way possible. Some of them went quite far in extent to criticizing the overall debacle and directly termed the parties involved as guilty. This incident was noticed in case of publication by Donnesbury comic strip which directly pointed finger at the then Attorney General John N. Mitchell. To some newspapers this was quite harsh and blunt and decided not to display this directly nor point finger directly by terming them guilty in open words. Washington post was one of the newspapers that decided to practice discretion and not to go all fronts war and open against the people involved in the murky episode that had frosted the political setup of the country. To some critiques, severe rules and norms of ethical codes and conduct would be violated and in fact were viol ated by displaying cartoons that directly pointed at individuals. Washington post was one of the newspapers that took this matter into account and decided not to publish content indiscriminately. Los Angeles times and Newsday were two other newspapers that took into account the matter of ethical codes and conduct consideration and decided not to publish everything that may come to hand. The one post that caused stir all over was the one in which attorney general was termed guilty, however since he was not proven as one as the entire case was on trial therefore most of the newspapers took back the cartoon section and decided not to publish it(Lemann, nicholas).While the cartoon did gain a lot of interest and attention,... The research paper makes sure we know that the depoch in the history of American politics is termed as one of the most disturbing, unwarranted and un afforded one which cost all the members involved in it heavily. The impact of the overall episode was so intense that it led to the resignation of an elected President and which had never happened in history before as in case of a similar political scandal. Then the paper introduces us to the term such as Frost Nixon interview. Frost Nixon interviews were part of the entire script and they were conducted by British members, after the incumbent president had taken refuge in his private life, he devoted considerable amount of time to this series and hence this series is named as frost Nixon interviews series. The paper also shares information, where the notable newspapers took this story by its horns and both the editorials, cartoonists, columnists and every person who could contribute contributed in their own way to discuss this topic in every way possible. The paper also shows us the consequences of the situation. The things did not end here, many dozen members of the governmental office were deprived of their ranks, various others imprisoned, thorough investigation stemmed in and at the end of it a lot was disclosed which none of the involved parties would have ever desired coming out to front. In conclusion, we see that what started off as a mere speculation by the security guard was something that would become a Hydra in longer run and would not extinguish until it took along with it the high ups of the day.

Critical Mission of Homeland Security Essay Example for Free

Critical Mission of Homeland Security Essay The Department of Homeland Security was created after the attacks of September 11, 2001. The Department was formed by merging many exiting resources and adding to the best practices already in place. The Strategic Objectives of the Department are stated by the Department as â€Å"We will lead the unified national effort to secure America. We will prevent and deter terrorist attacks and protect against and respond to threats and hazards to the Nation. We will secure our national borders while welcoming lawful immigrants, visitors, and trade. â€Å" (Homeland Security). Critical Mission of Homeland Security The critical missions of Department of Homeland Security are to prevent, protect, respond and recover. Through utilization of all available technology and resources the primary mission is to prevent an aggressive act. If they are unable to prevent the incident the department will shift focus to protection. Protect as many citizens as possible from any imminent incident. If the incident could not be prevented the Homeland Security officials will respond to whatever the results are of the incident. This response could be in the way of coordinating with other agencies to provide the care and safety needed by the population in the affected area. The final mission is to recover from the incident. Although each mission is defined as a single mission in practice they are often interlinked in execution. While protecting citizens from an incident the agency at the same time may be proactively responding to the results of the incident. The recovery mission is over lapped in many areas by the response mission. Four Foundations of Homeland Security The National Strategy for Homeland Security has defined four foundations of homeland security. These foundations are; law, science and technology, information sharing and systems, and international cooperation. Each of these play a key part in providing for our national security. Identification and enforcement of the law. We have to know exactly what we are enforcing. Use of science and technology in each of the four critical mission areas. Information sharing was something various government agencies were not very effective at prior to 9/11. Since then Homeland Security has been working on removing many of the communication silos that were prevalent in the past. By open communication with several agencies overall effectiveness is improved. International cooperation is the final of the four foundations that has to be built upon. With terrorist moving from nation to nation and planning many of the attacks from foreign soil we have to work with all nations. International borders have to be permeable in today’s war on terror. Virginia Office of Commonwealth Preparedness The Commonwealth of Virginia has their own Department of Homeland Security. In Virginia it is called The Office of Commonwealth Preparedness. This office mirror many of the processes and objectives of the United States Department of Homeland Security. The Office of Commonwealth Preparedness works to make sure that all of the residents and businesses of the Commonwealth are safe, secure and prepared. Criminal Law and Civil Law Criminal Law and Civil Law are very different types of proceedings. Civil Law is usually a case between tow individuals or business entities. Criminal Law is a case between a person and a government. Civil Law In Civil Law a person is involved in litigation with another person or business. These are usually divorce cases, law suits due to injury at a place of business, or bankruptcy cases. Civil law never involves incarceration of either party because of the civil proceedings. There are some Civil cases that may become criminal cases. Stalking a spouse you are involved in a civil divorce proceeding with will lead to criminal charges being filed against the stalker. Civil law will never result in the incarceration of the guilty party. Fines in a Civil Law case are often paid to the other party in the proceeding. Criminal Law In Criminal Law there is a crime committed against society, or that endangers society by the action. Murder is a Criminal Law case. Although there may be only one victim the perpetrator of the criminal act may do so again. Therefore, society must be protected from this person. Driving while intoxicated is also a criminal law case. Even though no member of society may have been harmed by the act of driving under the influence. There was a danger posed to society by the act of driving under the influence. Criminal law cases may result in incarceration or probation of the guilty party. Fines judged in a Criminal Law case are paid to the governing body prosecuting the case. Incarceration for Misdemeanor Crimes The main difference in the two types of crimes misdemeanor and felony is the amount of possible incarceration if convicted. A felony is a more serious crime and if convicted the accused could be sentenced to incarceration for a term greater than one year or death. Misdemeanor crimes are less serious offences and if convicted will result in incarceration of less than a year if at all. I do not think those convicted of a misdemeanor should be incarcerated unless the person demonstrated no willingness to be rehabilitated through other means. Running a red light is a misdemeanor. Incarcerating this person for a period of time will serve no purpose in rehabilitation. The only outcome in this incarceration would be increase cost to the taxpayer of the community and increased crowding of jails. This accused will probably learn their lesson by paying a fine and undergoing a traffic safety class. The penalty of the crime will drive a lesson home to the accused. The taking a class will increase the general safety of the public. The current volume of cases on our court systems and the high cost of incarceration forces us to take a more lenient approach for misdemeanor crimes. Many in society would rather a person creating a danger to the public be off the streets rather than someone convicted of running a traffic light or petty theft. The penalty should be designed to make restitution and lead to rehabilitation of the accused. When we balance the crime with the penalty then we can have a better society. Bibliography Homeland Security. (2008). Department of Homeland Security. One Team, One Mission, Securing our Homeland. Retrieved 20 March 2009, from, http://www. dhs. gov/xlibrary/assets/DHS_StratPlan_FINAL_spread. pdf

Ict And Language Learning Teaching Methods Information Technology Essay

Ict And Language Learning Teaching Methods Information Technology Essay The definitions could be considered narrow. More interestingly, Cambridge Advanced Learners Dictionary defines ICT in a narrower context: a school subject in which students learn to use computers and other electronic equipment to store and send information. It is noted that  both interpretations are deficient  in that it glosses over current ICT inventions and ignores previous technological devices such as printing machines, telephone, radio and television. In a broader view of ICT, we will be discussing the role of ICT in supporting language learning from the perspective of historical background and within the framework of SLA (Second Language Acquisition). In this essay we will seek to address the following questions: To what extend language learning are affected by ICT? How does ICT co-relate and correspond to learning-teaching methods and SLA hypotheses? 2 The role of ICT and Language Learning-Teaching Methods 2.1 Historical background Before the arrival of printing press, emphasis has been placed on catechetic and oral communication activities for grammar teaching and learning (Guo, 2010). Following the invention of movable printing machine in 1455, literacy among society has been significantly improved. As quoted by Crystal (2004: 56), the new invention gave an unprecedented impetus to the formation of a standard language and the study of its properties. On the other hand, Kelly (1969) states that deductive and inductive methods have existed for ages. To date, Brown (1994: 351) points out that the inductive approach is preferred as it is in tune with subconscious and implicit language acquisition. Kenning (2007) analyses that the emergences of both deductive and inductive approaches predated printing technology hence the popularity might not be attributed to the technology. Thus she states that ICT had little to do with the birth of the approaches. In addition, it is worthwhile to point out that the role of printing technology in language learning was limited in the early years. For instance, Comenius wrote a  pioneering  book in 1658, Orbis Sensualium Pictus, related to audio-visual learning method. He presented Latin vocabulary words and modern languages with pictures. (Leinenbauch Gillette, 1997: 486). This revolutionary inductive approach eventually failed due to technical difficulty and expensive cost of printing illustrations (Kenning, 2007). This claim is in line with Ellis (1997)s notion that, social and cultural contexts is among the external factors that significantly influence the amount of exposure and use of a L2 (p.4-5). Thus, successful implementation of an innovative learning approach may be postponed until the technology is ready for the conditions. Language teaching has been using technologies such as phonograph, radio, projector, tape recorder, computer, the Internet, the Web, interactive whiteboard, DVD-ROMs, mobile phone and personal digital assistant (PDA) (Davies 2005) to support language learning from early 20th century. Due to the versatility of ICT, one can thus argue that ICT has potential to play a significant role in facilitating learning methods connected to deductive and inductive approaches such as Grammar-Translation Method (deductive), Direct Method (inductive), Audio-lingual Method (inductive), Communicative Language Teaching Approach and Task-Based Approach (inductive). We are therefore going to review and discuss the advantages of ICT according to each of these methods in the following section. 2.2 Grammar Translation Method Grammar Translation Method is an L2 teaching method based on the analysis of grammar and translation from L1 to L2 and vice versa. (Wong, 2005: 118). Grammar Translation Method was derived  from classical method of teaching  Greek and  Latin in 16th century (Wong, 2005: 1) and only became popular in the late 19th century early 20th century.  It is interesting to note that although printing production had been improved since 15th century, the real revolution only began when steam-powered press was invented to deliver 1,100 sheets per hour (Hutchinson, 2008). Following this revolution, printing and publishing costs has been significantly lowered. This has consequently fostered the implementation of grammar-translation method as constant reference is necessary for translation (Kenning, 2007). Although this method began to decline following the introduction of Direct Method, its traces can still be found in todays language classrooms where reading competence is emphasised (Wong, 2005). In modern contexts, overhead projector and drill-and-practice CALL (behaviourist stage) have somehow replaced blackboard and books for uni-directional transmission of information in L2 grammar-translation classrooms (Warschauer Meskill, 2000). What is clear in this passage is the vital importance of  ICT in popularizing Grammar Translation Method in late 19th century and early 20th century. However, todays cutting-edge technology has failed to revive the traditional method. We could attribute this phenomenon to the deficiency of the deductive method itself, in which implicit language acquisition has been neglected. 2.3 Direct Method Thornbury (2007:21) defines the Direct Method as a method prioritises on oral skills, and, while following a syllabus of grammar structures, rejected explicit grammar teaching. Stocker (1921) and Clarke (1921) (both cited in Salaberry, 2001: 40) emphasised the important role of phonograph in learning L2 pronunciation and intonation. Boldyreff (1929) claimed that the use of phonograph makes language learning more scientific and efficient. However, Jespersen (1904) expressed his concern over the sound quality, especially the consonant was still far from perfect. The use of radio solved Jespersens concern. For instance, Quinault (1947) described BBC program English by Radio as perhaps the biggest experiment in language teaching by radio on purely direct method lines (p.119). She further claimed that the continental listeners managed to concentrate on the sound alone and eventually acquired the pronunciation successfully. As stated by Reith (1924), radio offered perfect pronunciation through native speaker utterance. Indeed, radio managed to cater the needs of language learners who adopted Direct Method in early years. Nowadays, Direct Method, well-known as Berlitz Method, is supported by cutting-edged technology. Learning are still done in oral context (Berlitz, 2010) but interactive white board, multimedia, the Internet and the Web have been integrated into Berlitz Virtual Classroom (BVC, 2010). In line with Kenning (2007)s claim, ICT at this stage has been used to meets the needs of eclectic approach set within a broad conceptual framework. 2.4 Audio-lingual Method (ALM) The ALM is led by behaviourist psychology and structural linguistic (Richards Rogers, 2001). In 1970s and 1980s, the behaviourist CALL (Computer-Assisted Language Learning) such as language laboratories served as effective tools to deliver instruction, dialogue memorisation, repetitive drill exercises and correct answers to the learners (Warschauer, 1996; Warschauer Meskill, 2000). Eventually, language laboratories were failed as it only adopted a single methodology and neglected creative production of human language (Chambers, Conacher Littlemore, 2004). In todays context, the role of ICT could still be traced. For example, the Duke University gave away iPod to 1,600 first year students to evaluate the effectiveness of the technology device in academic use (Belanger, 2005). Apparently, ALM was adopted in language learning: In languagesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦listening comprehension or performance-based components, practice and repetition was facilitated through digital audio files (Belanger, 2005: 9). For example, L2 learners spoken Spanish and their response during oral quizzes were recorded using iPod. Also, weekly vocabulary words with translations and audio diary was downloaded as learning materials (Belanger, 2005: 15). The use of iPod proved to be beneficial in supporting audio-lingual language learning in this project. 2.5 Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) Approach CLT approach adopts a broad and eclectic philosophy rather than specific prescribed procedure in language learning and teaching (Wong, 2005). Communicative CALL replaced behaviourist CALL in the 1970s and 1980s (Warschauer, 1996). Authentic situations, purposeful and meaningful communication, learner-centred settings, written and gesture communication are all important elements in this approach (VanPatten, 2002). It is clear to note that the ICT inventions have been used accordingly to fulfil the specific purpose of the approach. For instance, Fox (1997) reported that Language Learning Network project consisted of the Internet and video conferencing had successfully created a communication content-driven learning environment. More recently, Littlemore Oakey (2004) points out the Web has made authentic meaningful communication possible by providing substantial amount of resources and knowledge. CMC (Computer-Mediated Communication), for example, provide the opportunity to use the L2 authentically. 2.6 Task-based Approach Task-based approach is a syllabus that is organised based on a series of tasks that learners are expected to perform (Wong, 2005: 120). It has attracted much attention from SLA researchers over the past two years. Similar to CLT approach, broad and eclectic philosophy are incorporated in this approach. Thus the concept has been widely adopted by SLA hypotheses such as input processing, negotiation of meaning, focus on form and output comprehensible output (Van den Branden, 2006: 1). Indeed, ICT such as Internet and the Web has been used as powerful tools to enhance both CLT approach and task-based learning. This has yielded positive outcomes such as increased interaction, increased task authenticity and creative output production (Egbert Hanson-Smith, 1999). In this section we have reviewed to what extend ICT has supported language learning according to different teaching methods. In the next section we will discuss the role of ICT according to different SLA hypotheses. 3 The Role of ICT and SLA Hypotheses 3.1 Comprehensible Input According to Krashen (1981, 1982, and 1985, cited in Wong, 2005), comprehensible input is the language that learners can understand with their current level of linguistic competence. Multimedia enables visualization of abstract concepts and complex processes (Davies (2005)/ Also, modified input in multimedia CALL provides comprehensible input to learners (Chapelle, 1998). For example, by using captioned interactive video (Shea, 2000), learners will better understand the L2 discourse in the authentic discourse. In addition, comprehensible input is made available through task-based activities such as web-authoring task (Mishan 2004). The importance of exposure to authentic L2 text has been generally endorsed by SIA researchers (e.g. Larsen-Freeman Long, 1991). During web-authoring task using software such as Dreamweaver, FrontPage and GoLive, learners are exposed to authentic text in following the instruction to build their own website (Mishan 2004). For distance learning, ICT could be utilized to create learning environment with productive and rich L2 input. This consequently diminishes dichotomy between distance language learners and classroom learners (Davies et al., 2010). Along the way, good evidence about the positive role of ICT has been reviewed within the framework of Comprehensible Input Hypothesis. It is noted that ICT could be beneficial when the learners are exposed to rich and authentic L2 environments such as task-based activities and distance learning settings. However, agreeing with Bardovi-Harlig (2001), input alone is not sufficient to support language learning. In such a case we will explore the role of ICT in supporting Comprehensible Output and Interaction Hypothesis. 3.2 Comprehensible Output Comprehensible Output Hypothesis postulated by Swain (1985, 1995, cited in Wong, 2005) suggests that output learners need to be pushed to produce comprehensible output that is important to trigger noticing, positive feedback and negative evidence during acquisition. Davies (2005) states that ICT, especially computer, encourages comprehensible output, that is, active use of L2. As evidence, Evans (1996)s study reports that computer-based task is ultimately responsible to stimulate and improve learners oral communication. In particular, synchronous CMC tasks direct learners to produce higher quality spoken output (Kern, 1995; Warschauer, 1996). Blakes (2000) study supports Swains hypothesis by reporting that online interchange pushed learners to produce written output. In addition, as indicated by Warschauer (2001), learners appear to incorporate new learned syntactical patterns or lexical chunks extensively during CMC task (p. 290). Also, it is stated that the hypertext environment of the Web improves learners writing skills. Through the support of visual and sound using multimedia elements, learners are likely to extend their communicative output (Davies, 2005) in a context-rich setting. Apparently, we have all the good evidence on the use of ICT in pushing learners to produce comprehensible output. Learners are not only encouraged to use the L2 actively, but are also more willingly to try out new L2 knowledge in a more secured and virtual environment compared to real-life classroom. Indeed, the contribution of advanced Internet technology could not be denied in this context. Nevertheless, it is argued that comprehensible output is still not ample to facilitate the development of L2 linguistic system. We will hence examine if ICT plays any positive role in enhancing language learning experience from the perspective of Interaction Hypothesis. 3.3 Noticing Hypothesis Research revealed that noticing on specific linguistic features in the L2 input is crucial to language learning (Doughty, 1991). By manipulating L2 input using ICT, such as multimedia CALL, input enhancement technique could be applied easily into language learning or teaching pedagogy. Thus the chance of noticing could be increased (Chapelle, 1998). Littlemore and Oakey (2004) later characterized web-based resources meet one of Chapelles (2001) criteria for CALL task appropriateness, namely focus on form (p. 98-99). From the point of view of grammar instruction, studies conducted by Ushioda (2000), ORourke (2005) and Meskill Anthony (2007) show that CMC tasks successfully draw learners attention to the specific linguistic features in their own output, and engage in focus-on-form (originated by Michael Long, 1983, 1996 cited in Wong, 2005) communicative practice. In addition, Yuans (2003) study reported that combination of on-line chat and regular in-class discussion increased learners awareness of their grammatical errors in their interlanguage. Also, Kukulska-Hulme Bull (2009)s study indicates that language learning diaries using mobile assisted language learning enhance learners noticing of linguistic feature in L2 input. From the point of view of vocabulary acquisition, the multi-dimension hypertext supports Schdmits Noticing Hypothesis by providing a mixture of multimedia elements to learners. For example, empirical evidences obtained by Jones (2004) and Yanguas (2009) show that multimedia environment is beneficial for L2 vocabulary acquisition. In their studies, learners managed to notice the target words with visual aids and textual glosses. With regards to the Noticing Hypothesis, we can clearly define the advantages of the use of ICT. Indeed, through multimedia environment and mobile language learning, learners are supported to focus on the specific linguistic features (e.g. input enhancement and focus on form) and develop L2 linguistic system in more natural and flexible settings compared to face-to-face classroom. 3.4 Interaction Hypothesis Interaction Hypothesis (Gass, 1997, 2003 cited in VanPatten Benati, 2010) asserted that interaction is necessary in language learning process because learners output may trigger input modification by other speakers. However, the opportunity to interact face-to-face is rather restricted within the regular L2 classroom settings (Kitade, 2000). Fortunately, the invention of the Internet and the Web has provided a better interaction platform to learners. A number of research studies have been conducted on negotiation of meaning and CMC, a manifestation of Warschauers (1996) concept of integrative CALL (e.g. Blake, 2000; Kitade, 2000; Meskill Anthony, 2007). Warschauer (1997) states that the inter-cultural context make online learning a potentially powerful tool for collaborative language learning (pp. 470). Through CMC tasks, learners interact more actively with L2 (Kern, 1995; Warschauer, 1996). For example, learners appreciate the corrective feedback from their partners in email exchanges tasks. (ODowd, 2004; St. John Cash, 1995). Also, Blakes (2000) study shows that CMC promotes L2 acquisition of lexical items through interaction on a synchronous on-line chat program. When communicating with native speakers, miscommunication or even misunderstanding may happen when the learners do not know when and how to use certain linguistic forms appropriately. Research has found that instruction on the speech acts helps learners to improve their pragmatic performance and communication competence (Kasper Rose, 2002). In this context the role of ICT becomes, once again, crucial since we can argue that tandem learning system could eliminate, or at least, reduce the sense of offence and embarrassment. 3.5 Motivation ICT is potentially a great tool to boost both integrative and instrumental motivation in language learning process. Integrative motivation is related to psychology whereas instrumental motivation set language as tool to derive benefit from the environment (VanPatten Benati, 2010: 111). Some research shows that synchronous CMC leads to significant motivation boost among L2 learners. For example, Appel Guerrero (2002)s study shows that tandem project via email encourages learners to correct each other. Also, passive and shy learners appear to be more active to participate in electronic discussions compared to teacher-led discussions. (Beauvouis 1992; Kelm, 1992). From the perspective of instrumental motivation, Web authoring tasks inspire the sense of authorship and create the feel of privilege among language learners (Mishan, 2004). Scripting, recording, producing and performing own podcast works will enhance learners sense of ownership (LTS MFLE, 2010). These situations will undoubtedly increase their motivation and derive  a sense of accomplishment along the process of task-based language learning. However, Owen (2008) argues that the level of motivation is heavily depending on achievability of task. This notion implies that although ICT plays a significant role in enhancing motivation, teachers/instructors play a more dominant role in designing and choosing the most appropriate ICT task best fitting their students needs. 3.5.1 Autonomous Learning Motivation has close link with autonomous learning. Autonomous and independent learners become highly motivated and this leads to better learning outcomes (Dickinson, 1995, cited in Benson, 2001). The early application of CALL as behaviorist tool was less efficient for autonomy development (Fox, 1994). During the communicative phase, the pre-programmed CALL still played role as tutor although the tasks did not grant full control to learners. (Benson 2001:137). However, Kenning (1996: 128) stated that the used of word processors in communicative CALL supported cognitive and meta-cognitive autonomy. Thus, Benson (2001) further stated that when computes used as non-language learning tools, autonomy will be enhanced. Later, multimedia, the Internet and the Web has brought CALL to current integrative phase (Warschauer, 1996). Integrative CALL supports autonomy learning development with rich input and encourages learners to take control over the selection of learning strategies and materials (Benson, 2001). Mishan (2004:130) further claims that the Internet is the most powerful medium to orientate learners towards autonomous learning. Indeed, learners are supported by various forms of multimedia on the Web to search and discover learning strategies that best suit them. Its been observed that independent learners play more active role during language learning process. For example, the use of authoring software and cognitive tools engage learners as researchers and the experimenters in a L2 task-based learning classroom (Rà ¼schoff, 2004). In addition, one of ODowd (2004)s Spanish students who learned English as L2 expressed his/her opinions on email exchanges by stating that we have the opportunity to have a teacher and, at the same time, to be teachers (p.156). This implies that learners are motivated when they play role as tutors by correcting partners language errors during the exchanges. Also, CMC learning tasks via e-mail exchanges (Ushioda, 2000) and MOOs (object-oriented Multiple User Domains) (Sheild, 2001) is excellent for autonomy learning as learners are able to take control of their learning process, content and objectives. In addition, Sarasin (1999: 2) states that tailored exercises that fit their students learning ways will maximize the learning potential outcome. For example, Hot Potatoes is an excellent authoring software that enables teachers to design language activities such as multiple-choice questions and gap fills exercises according to learning styles of their own students. We can argue that the role of ICT is, certainly, more prominent if being explored from the angle of independent learning. Language learners gain access to rich L2 resources via ICT devices such as the Internet, the Web, Podcast and digital mobile phones. 3.5.2 Learning Strategies OMalley d Chamot (1990) classify learning strategies under three main categories: cognitive (repeating, translating, and analyzing), metacognitive (organizing, planning and controlling) and socio-affective (seeking clarification, co-operating with peers, self-talk). Learners who have regular opportunities to develop their metacognitive awareness through on-line training may become more autonomous language learners. With the arrival of audio-video conferencing systems, distance learners can learn language at anytime and share opinions on their roles in it (Hauck, 2005). For example, Whites (1995) study shows that independent distance learners aware that they need to re-evaluate their role and responsibilities as language learners thus make greater use of metacognitive strategy, especially self-management. For cognitive strategy, learners are able to apply their prior knowledge about L2 in creative ways on different multimedia activities on the Web. Memory strategy is thus supported through multimedia elements of the Internet where images and sounds are available for mental linking. Also, CMC provides a platform for learners to apply social strategies where learners more aware of the relationship between the target language and its cultural (ODowd, 2004). They will be able to share recommendations for useful resources and tools found on and off the Internet. (Warschauer Shetzer, 2000: 179). To summarize we can therefore argue that ICT, if properly used, is unquestionably helping language learning and could contribute towards different learning strategies development. 3.5.3 Learning Styles ICT such as interactive games, interactive whiteboard, video and digital image offers support to different learning styles and allow learners to learn in ways appropriate to their learning approaches (Becta Report, 2009: 2). In particular, language learning tasks through the Internet can suit different learning styles. For instance, Sheikh Dibs (2003) points out that the needs of visual learners are fulfilled by text, images and video whereas auditory learners are supported with oral presentation on the Web. Sensory learners enjoy both visual and auditory resources on the Web. Hands-on learners will apply their knowledge through activities such as on-line games and cross puzzle. To sum up, learners learn better when they are interested and ICT serves to extend and prolong their initial interest (Murray Barnes, 1998). Integrating various forms of multimedia is doubtlessly among the best option to present L2 input. This practice increases the variety of learning tasks when teachers/instructors manage to adapt and modified the content to meet different types of learning styles. In this session we have reviewed the positive role of ICT. Indeed, the incorporation of technology into language learning always corresponds to external and internal factors indentified within the framework of contemporary SLA research. Internal factors are cognitive factors such as processing strategies, prior linguistic knowledge, the architecture of LAD (Language Acquisition Device) of the human brain (VanPatten, 2003), aptitude and motivation (Myles, 2002). Meanwhile, social factors, input and interaction are identified as external factors by Ellis (1997). We could easily identify both factors in todays language learning contexts and how effective are they in supporting learners to build their L2 linguistic system from different perspective. However, ICT could be a two-sided sword if not being used without proper guide. In the next section we will discuss the disadvantages of barrier of the use of ICT. 4 Disadvantages and Barriers of ICT In the section above we have identified a substantial number of advantages for the use of ICT in language learning such as the fact that ICT provides easy and reliable access to authentic materials, supports different learning styles, enhances cross-cultural communication and collaboration. However, empirical evidences have identified some problems and barriers to the use of ICT in language learning which will be reviewed and analysed in the following section. 4.1 Security Ramirez et al (2008) identify cyber bullying as a growing problem among teenagers and young adults in schools. Even peer bullying among children is budding due to the increased anonymous use of wireless ICT devices on the Web (Tettegah et al, 2006). Gender differences have also been identified in CMC, where men tend to dominate the discussion (Cook et al., 2001). In addition, Herring (2000) reports number of offensive case against women in asynchronous CMC. For instance, Dibbell (1993, cited in Herring, 2000) textually-based virtual rape and sexual harassment incident were reported by Dibbell (1993) and Reid (1994) (both cited in Herring, 2000). Indeed, such incidents reveal the dark side of the technology which deflates social responsibility and accountability. In addition, vast amount of information is available on the Web and not all of them are appropriate. In particular, the exposure of pornography on the Web to teenagers and children is always a focus issue and concern over the use of the Internet. To overcome these circumstances, filtering software such as Surf Watch enables parents and teachers to protect students against undesirable material. However, full control and censorship on the Internet is unjustifiable and unenforceable. When the Internet access is available in the classroom, careful supervision and safeguard is necessary to increase security and protection level. The role of the instructor/teacher is therefore vital not only in terms of preparation of ICT-based activities but also in the supervision and delivery of the Internet based activities. 4.2 Learners-Fit As stated in previously, the ready-made Web-based resource might not fit the specific needs of learners with different learning styles. Moreover, ready-make multimedia packages  available on commercial  language learning software are usually technological driven and do not take learners specific needs into serious account (Murray Barnes, 1998). Thus lack of expertise in developing software program could lead to lack of reliability. In addition, Littlemore Oakey (2004) also addressed the limitation of Web-based resources to meet the needs of learner-fit (Chapelle, 2001: 59). Ready-made exercises and resources on the Web, such as Si Espana and Bonjour de France are less likely to cope with every different learning style. Thus careful decision should be made when teachers or learners are pondering on whether or not to use these materials for language teaching/learning. Also, this could be tackled by using web-based authoring tools appropriately. The baseline is that teachers/instructors need to modify and adapt the ready-made materials according to the precise needs of their own learners group. 4.3 Information Overload It could be problematic if learners are bombarded with massive amount of information through ICT and leads to information overload (Littlemore and Oakey 2004). Moreover, searching online could sometimes be time consuming (for both instructors and students) where the quality and accuracy of the contents is not always under control. In addition, task-based learning activities without proper design will also lead to information overload. For example, in a many-to-many interaction through CMC, some learners might find that they are lost in group discussion. Thus certain information might be ignored and becomes a set of asocial monologues (Moran, 1991:52). Therefore, training is necessary to equip learners and instructors with appropriate searching and skimming skill. Teachers/instructors also need to be trained to design tasks in accordance to SLA theories and that allow the learners to response to the discourse in a multi-way CMC, to explore the material and consequently generate positive learning outcomes. 4.4 Reliability Warschauer (1999) reported that a great number of network-exchanges project failed to meet the expectation of language learning outcomes. This is due to the difficulty to maintain learners and their partners initial interest and motivation. Cross-cultural email exchanges might sometimes be boring and tiresome if the learners can not find common interest with their partners. This weakens the initial passionate if the exchanges are not goal-oriented (ODowd, 2004). In other words, without proper design and guidance, CMC tasks could be meaningless and lead to communication breakdown. In addition, learners might be discouraged if their CMC partners do not turn up in the chat room or answer their message (ODowd, 2004). This might be attributed to factors such as lost of interest, poor time management and limited access to the Internet which it is definitely not helping SLA. ODowd (2004) further points out learners might develop perception that the cultural of the L2 country is unfriendly. This implies that the learners will be further discouraged to continue learning the L2. To solve this issue, learners and their partners should be trained and be educated beforehand on this issue to established friendly relationship (Fischer, 1998; Muller Hartman, 2000)with their partners. As far as social reliability is concerned, technology reliability is also considered as a barrier. Specifically, computers are sometimes unreliable as the artificial intelligence cannot handle unexpected ad-hoc sit